peptidechats
Research information only. Not medical advice. 18+ only. Not FDA-approved for human therapeutic use.

LL-37

Also known as: hCAP18/LL-37, human cathelicidin, CAMP gene peptide, cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide, CRAMP (murine ortholog)

Antimicrobial peptide / Host defense peptide (Cathelicidin family)

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What it is

LL-37 is the sole human cathelicidin, encoded by the CAMP gene and cleaved extracellularly from its 18 kDa precursor protein hCAP18. It is a cationic (+6 net charge at pH 7.4), amphipathic, helical peptide that exerts broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against bacteria (gram-positive and gram-negative), fungi, viruses, and parasites through multiple mechanisms including membrane permeabilization and pore formation, disruption of microbial biofilms, targeting of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and lipoteichoic acid (LTA), oxidative stress induction, inhibition of cell adhesion, and interference with viral envelope and replication (PMID 41270816; PMID 26556394; PMID 38057654). LL-37 activates multiple host cell surface receptors (including FPR2/FPRL1, P2X7, EGF receptor, TLR4, and MrgX2) and intracellular targets, initiating diverse downstream signaling pathways (PMID 27609777; PMID 28549244; PMID 39643165). It modulates innate immunity by binding and inactivating bacterial endotoxins, promoting chemotaxis of immune cells, regulating apoptosis (both pro- and anti-apoptotic depending on cell type and concentration), inducing NET formation, and exerting both pro- and anti-inflammatory effects (PMID 40063262; PMID 42794783; PMID 31046155). Its expression is upregulated by vitamin D via CAMP gene activation, UV light, microbial infection, and injury (PMID 38642493; PMID 34565561). LL-37 also promotes wound healing, angiogenesis, keratinocyte migration and proliferation, and tissue repair (PMID 57; PMID 18). Biological effects are highly context-dependent, varying with peptide concentration, cell type, receptor expression, disease stage, and local microenvironment (PMID 42095322; PMID 41916132).

Class: Antimicrobial peptide / Host defense peptide (Cathelicidin family)

What it's studied for

  • Broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity (bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasites) Mixed
    • LL-37 effectively combats over 38 bacteria, 16 fungi, and 16 viruses through membrane rupture, biofilm suppression, oxidative stress, adhesion prevention, gene modification, and disruption of viral envelopes, entry, and replication. PMID 41270816 Neshani et al. Infection, genetics and evolution (2025)
    • Review of LL-37 efficacy against bacterial, fungal, and viral infections, and cancer immunity; highlights mechanisms including bacterial membrane disruption, inhibition of fungal growth, and interference with viral replication. PMID 39643165 Keshri et al. Int J Antimicrob Agents (2025)
    • LL-37 demonstrates a robust antibiofilm effect at sub-inhibitory concentrations against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. PMID 22917247 Jacobsen & Jenssen. Future Med Chem (2012)
    • LL-37 inhibits growth of clinically relevant fungi including Aspergillus, Candida, Colletotrichum, Fusarium, Malassezia, Pythium, and Trichophyton via membrane permeabilization, oxidative stress, cell cycle arrest, and other mechanisms. PMID 38057654 Memariani & Memariani. World J Microbiol Biotechnol (2023)
    • Review of antiparasitic activity of LL-37 against protozoan and helminth infections. PMID 38604693 Lou & He. Chinese J Schistosomiasis Control (2024)
  • Wound healing (including diabetic wounds and diabetic foot ulcers) Mixed
    • Randomized double-blind controlled trial: LL-37 cream applied twice weekly for 4 weeks enhanced granulation tissue formation (granulation index greater in LL-37 group on days 7, 14, 21, 28; p<0.05) in diabetic foot ulcers with mild infection; did not significantly decrease IL-1α, TNF-α, or aerobic bacterial colonizatio PMID 37480520 Miranda et al. Arch Dermatol Res (2023)
    • LL-37 accelerated wound healing in diabetic mice by activating TFEB-dependent autophagy; effects were reversed by autophagy inhibitor 3-MA. LL-37 promoted TFEB nuclear translocation and upregulated ATG5, ATG7, and BECN1. PMID 38423213 Xi et al. Peptides (2024)
  • Sepsis (treatment and biomarker) Animal studies only
    • Review: In animal models, administration of exogenous LL-37 peptide to mice with experimentally induced sepsis increases their survival. LL-37 concentrations show high dynamics of change in blood during sepsis. PMID 40960088 Mańkowska et al. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (2025)
    • LL-37 (murine ortholog CRAMP) protects against septic lung injury in mice by modulating NLRP3, caspase-1, and GSDMD pyroptosis pathway components. Low-dose CRAMP (2.5 mg/kg) and high-dose CRAMP (5.0 mg/kg) were administered intratracheally in mouse ALI model. PMID 38310763 Wang et al. Int Immunopharmacol (2024)
  • COVID-19 / SARS-CoV-2 antiviral activity Mixed
    • LL-37 bound multiple domains of SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein and inhibited interaction with ACE2 receptor in vitro. Up to seven LL-37 molecules observed surrounding Spike in a halo-like structure. LL-37 also bound ORF7a and ORF8. PMID 41064641 Roth et al. Front Cell Infect Microbiol (2025)
    • LL-37 predominantly binds the S2 subunit of SARS-CoV-2 Spike and impedes TMPRSS2-mediated priming. Omicron N764K mutation reduces LL-37 affinity. LL-37 enhanced early humoral immune response in mice against SARS-CoV-2 Spike but not Omicron BA.4/5 Spike. PMID 40375579 Bi et al. Cell Prolif (2025)
    • LL-37 was elevated in plasma of COVID-19 patients; levels negatively correlated with thrombin time and positively with fibrinogen. Injection of cathelicidin peptides promoted thrombosis in vivo; deletion of cathelicidin inhibited thrombosis. PMID 35596804 Duan et al. Cell Mol Life Sci (2022)
    • Review: LL-37 has direct anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity and immunomodulatory/pleiotropic effects relevant to COVID-19. Vitamin D and other compounds induce LL-37 expression. PMID 35634307 Aloul et al. Front Immunol (2022)
  • Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) Mixed
    • Review: LL-37 plays dual roles in IBD—protective at physiological concentrations but potentially pathogenic at high concentrations. Discusses conditional mechanisms of activity transformation and role in intestinal immune homeostasis. PMID 42095322 Liu et al. Immunity Inflamm Dis (2026)
    • Review: Overexpression of LL-37 found in inflamed and noninflamed colon mucosa in ulcerative colitis; LL-37 expression not changed in Crohn's disease mucosa. Animal and human studies support protective effects of cathelicidins in both UC and CD. PMID 27135484 Sun et al. Inflamm Bowel Dis (2016)
    • In EHEC O157:H7-infected mice, LL-37 treatment inhibited body weight loss, restored intestinal villi, reduced epithelial apoptosis, decreased inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α), upregulated anti-inflammatory IL-10, increased tight junction proteins, and restored intestinal microbiota balance. PMID 36370932 Fang et al. Peptides (2023)
  • Periodontitis (biomarker and potential therapeutic) Human observational
    • Review: LL-37 elevated in gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) of periodontitis patients vs healthy controls; plays antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and tissue regenerative roles in periodontitis. PMID 39954662 He et al. Int Immunopharmacol (2025)
    • Case-control study (57 periodontitis patients, 57 healthy controls): LL-37 and FPR2 co-upregulated in periodontitis gingival tissues and GCF; both correlated with disease severity (PD/CAL). High concentration of LL-37 exacerbated pro-inflammatory response in gingival fibroblasts via FPR2. PMID 41072077 Lin et al. Int Dent J (2025)
  • Cancer (tumor promotion or suppression, cancer-type specific) Mixed
    • Review: In most studied epithelial tumors (breast, hepatocellular, squamous cell carcinomas), LL-37 typically promotes cell migration and invasiveness. In glioma and colon cancer, LL-37 inhibits motility. Effects depend on tumor type, receptor expression, concentration, and exposure time. PMID 41916132 Żochowski et al. Biomed Pharmacother (2026)
    • Review: LL-37 induces tumorigenic effects in ovarian, lung, breast, prostate, pancreas cancers, malignant melanoma, and skin SCC. Displays anti-cancer effects in colon cancer, gastric cancer, hematologic malignancy, and oral SCC. PMID 29843147 Chen et al. Cell Physiol Biochem (2018)
    • LL-37 produced by myeloid cells is upregulated in primary human lung cancer tissues and correlates with poor clinical outcome. LL-37 promotes lung cancer growth by activating Wnt/β-catenin signaling via TLR4 in tumor cells. PMID 31149039 Ji et al. Theranostics (2019)
    • LL-37 enhanced EMT, migration, and invasion in hepatocellular carcinoma cells via HER2/EGFR-MAPK/ERK signaling; LL-37 overexpression promoted lung metastasis in a mouse model. si-LL-37 enhanced 1,25(OH)2D3-induced inhibition of HCC migration. PMID 36656313 Zhang et al. Cell Adhes Migr (2023)
    • LL-37 conjugated to Fe3O4 nanoparticles (NH2@LL-37@Fe3O4) inhibited K562 leukemia cell growth in a concentration-dependent manner and induced apoptosis via TP53/Bax/Bcl-2 pathway in vitro. PMID 39333586 Habibi et al. Sci Rep (2024)
  • Psoriasis (biomarker and disease mechanism) Human observational
    • Observational study (50 psoriasis patients, 33 healthy controls): serum LL-37, IFN-γ, IL-17, and IL-22 significantly higher in psoriasis patients (p<0.001). LL-37 positively correlated with IFN-γ, IL-17, and IL-22. Posttreatment reduction observed in five patients. PMID 36988247 Lao et al. Immunity Inflamm Dis (2023)
    • In psoriatic lesions, very high concentrations (~300 µM) of LL-37 are detected, implying high peptide levels at the site of inflammation that can affect host cell viability locally. PMID 40063262 Svensson & Nilsson. Inflamm Res (2025)
  • Rosacea (disease mechanism) Mixed
    • Commentary: LL-37 promotes NLRP3-mediated inflammasome activation through lysosomal destabilization in LPS-primed models of rosacea in vitro. Injection of LL-37 in vivo leads to skin inflammation abrogated by NLRP3 inhibition and knockout in murine model. PMID 34565561 Croitoru & Piguet. J Invest Dermatol (2021)
  • Atherosclerosis / cardiovascular disease Mixed
    • Review: LL-37 is involved in regulation of atherosclerosis, thrombosis, inflammatory responses, and cardiac hypertrophy. Engineered LL-37-related peptides have been developed and shown to regulate disease development. PMID 39615616 Miao et al. Pharmacol Res (2024)
    • LL-37 induced endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) in human umbilical vein endothelial cells via Akt and NF-κB activation, suggesting a role in atherosclerosis pathogenesis. PMID 40690262 Suzuki et al. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem (2025)
  • Acute coronary syndrome (autoantigen and immune response) Human observational
    • Case-control: CD8+CD69+CD137+ T cells significantly increased by LL-37 stimulation in ACS PBMCs vs controls. LL-37 is an autoantigen in ACS; self-reactive T cell response is modulated predominantly by CTLA-4. Platelets from healthy controls down-modulated the CD8 T cell AIM profile. PMID 37051254 Chernomordik et al. Front Immunol (2023)
  • Dengue virus infection (immunomodulation) Mixed
    • Simultaneous exposure of exogenous LL-37 and DENV-2 reduced virus replication in human macrophages in vitro. Addition of LL-37 post-DENV-2 exposure reduced IL-6 production and increased antiviral gene expression. Vitamin D3 increased endogenous LL-37 production in macrophages. PMID 35512569 Castillo et al. Pathog Dis (2022)
  • Zika virus infection (antiviral activity) Mixed
    • Exosome-loaded LL-37 significantly inhibited ZIKV infection in vitro and in vivo, reduced testicular injury, and showed broad-spectrum antiviral effect. Mechanism included direct inactivation of viral particles, reduction of host cell susceptibility, and inhibition of viral replication. PMID 38460762 Wang et al. Antiviral Res (2024)
  • Cholesterol metabolism / LDL clearance Animal studies only
    • In Apoe-/- mice with hypercholesterolemia, murine LL-37 homolog Cramp accelerated cholesterol clearance by activating cholesterol excretion and preventing hepatic lipid accumulation. LL-37 was identified as an endogenous regulator of LDL promoting LDL cholesterol clearance via LDLR in hepatocytes and macrophages. PMID 40971038 Fang et al. Sci China Life Sci (2026)
  • Glucocorticoid resistance in inflammatory lung disease Mixed
    • LL-37 restored glucocorticoid sensitivity impaired by dsRNA in lung epithelial cells (BEAS-2B, A549) and in a murine asthma model (mCRAMP), possibly by inhibiting Akt and Erk1/2 pathways. PMID 31877496 Li et al. Int Immunopharmacol (2020)
  • Neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation in chronic rhinosinusitis Human observational
    • Clinical trial: NETs significantly increased in nasal polyps vs controls (23.01% vs 4.52%, P<0.0001). LL-37 protein and mRNA upregulated in nasal polyps. LL-37 promoted peripheral neutrophils to form NETs in a dose-dependent manner ex vivo. Neutrophils from CRSwNP patients more susceptible to LL-37-mediated NET formati PMID 31046155 Cao et al. Clin Exp Allergy (2019)
  • Kawasaki disease (inflammatory mechanism) Human observational
    • LL-37 highly expressed in serum of children with Kawasaki disease. LL-37 stimulation of coronary artery endothelial cells increased apoptosis and expression of TLR4, NLRP3, and inflammatory factors via TLR4-NF-κB-NLRP3 signaling. PMID 37773705 Si et al. Immunity Inflamm Dis (2023)
  • Osteoblast biology (cytotoxicity related to vitamin D-induced expression) In vitro only
    • Vitamin D (50 nM) enhanced CAMP mRNA ~170-fold and increased hCAP18/LL-37 protein 3-4 times in THP-1 monocytes. Synthetic LL-37 at 1.04 µM reduced viability of human osteoblast-like MG63 cells as measured by MTT assay. PMID 38642493 Aidoukovitch et al. Biochem Biophys Res Commun (2024)

Community-reported dosing

RouteDoseFrequency / DurationPopulation / contextSource tier
Endogenous tissue concentrations / in vitro1–10 µM (cytotoxic to many human cell types); ~300 µM detected in psoriatic lesions; ~1 µM in gingival crevicular fluid in periodontitisNot stated (observational/in vitro concentrations)humanResearch PMID 40063262
Intratracheal (in vivo murine sepsis-ALI model)Low-dose CRAMP: 2.5 mg/kg; High-dose CRAMP: 5.0 mg/kgNot statedanimalResearch PMID 38310763
Topical (cream applied to diabetic foot ulcer)LL-37 cream applied twice a week for 4 weeks; baseline wound fluid LL-37 levels 1.07 (0.37–4.96) ng/mg protein in LL-37 group and 1.11 (0.24–2.09) ng/mg protein in placebo group4 weekshumanResearch PMID 37480520
In vitro (added to MG63 osteoblast-like cells)1.04 µM (synthetic LL-37, concentration corresponding to hCAP18/LL-37 in vitamin D-stimulated THP-1 cells)Not statedin_vitroResearch PMID 38642493
Endogenous (gingival epithelium)Not specified quantitativelyNot statedhumanResearch PMID 23931055
Intravenous bolus and subcutaneous (in healthy mice)Just over 20 µg (intravenous bolus or subcutaneous, gallium-67 labeled LL-37 radiotracer)48 hours observationanimalResearch PMID 23
Topical (wound application in mouse model)Dose not specified (LL-37 applied topically to full-thickness wounds in diabetic mice)Not statedanimalResearch PMID 38423213
Injection (murine skin, in vivo)Dose not specified (LL-37 injected in vivo in murine rosacea model)Not statedanimalResearch PMID 34565561
subcutaneous injection100 mcgdailybiohackers and self-experimenters seeking immune modulation and antimicrobial support[S] Claude Sonnet 4.6 — synthesized from aggregate training data
subcutaneous injection200 mcgdailyexperienced biohackers and peptide users targeting more robust immune modulation[S] Claude Sonnet 4.6 — synthesized from aggregate training data
subcutaneous injection500 mcgdailyadvanced biohackers running higher-dose immune or anti-infective protocols[S] Claude Sonnet 4.6 — synthesized from aggregate training data
intranasal100 mcgonce dailybiohackers targeting upper respiratory immune defense or sinus-related conditions[S] Claude Sonnet 4.6 — synthesized from aggregate training data
intranasal200 mcgonce dailybiohackers with chronic sinusitis or respiratory conditions seeking localized antimicrobial peptide delivery[S] Claude Sonnet 4.6 — synthesized from aggregate training data
subcutaneous injection100 mcgevery other daybiohackers preferring lower-frequency dosing for long-term immune maintenance[S] Claude Sonnet 4.6 — synthesized from aggregate training data
subcutaneous injection500 mcg5 days on, 2 days offexperienced peptide users cycling LL-37 similarly to GHRPs and other peptides[S] Claude Sonnet 4.6 — synthesized from aggregate training data
subcutaneous injection200 mcgtwice dailybiohackers running acute protocols for active infection or illness[S] Claude Sonnet 4.6 — synthesized from aggregate training data
subcutaneous injection100 mcgdailylongevity-focused biohackers stacking LL-37 with thymosin alpha-1, BPC-157, or other immune peptides[S] Claude Sonnet 4.6 — synthesized from aggregate training data

Tier key: Research = PMID-cited study · [C] = scraped community source · [S] = model-synthesized from aggregate community reports (softer evidence). How we source.

References

  1. [1] PMID 41270816 — LL-37 effectively combats over 38 bacteria, 16 fungi, and 16 viruses through membrane rupture, biofilm suppression, oxidative stress, adhesion prevention, gene
  2. [2] PMID 39643165 — Review of LL-37 efficacy against bacterial, fungal, and viral infections, and cancer immunity; highlights mechanisms including bacterial membrane disruption, in
  3. [3] PMID 22917247 — LL-37 demonstrates a robust antibiofilm effect at sub-inhibitory concentrations against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.
  4. [4] PMID 38057654 — LL-37 inhibits growth of clinically relevant fungi including Aspergillus, Candida, Colletotrichum, Fusarium, Malassezia, Pythium, and Trichophyton via membrane
  5. [5] PMID 38604693 — Review of antiparasitic activity of LL-37 against protozoan and helminth infections.
  6. [6] PMID 37480520 — Randomized double-blind controlled trial: LL-37 cream applied twice weekly for 4 weeks enhanced granulation tissue formation (granulation index greater in LL-37
  7. [7] PMID 38423213 — LL-37 accelerated wound healing in diabetic mice by activating TFEB-dependent autophagy; effects were reversed by autophagy inhibitor 3-MA. LL-37 promoted TFEB
  8. [8] PMID 40960088 — Review: In animal models, administration of exogenous LL-37 peptide to mice with experimentally induced sepsis increases their survival. LL-37 concentrations sh
  9. [9] PMID 38310763 — LL-37 (murine ortholog CRAMP) protects against septic lung injury in mice by modulating NLRP3, caspase-1, and GSDMD pyroptosis pathway components. Low-dose CRAM
  10. [10] PMID 41064641 — LL-37 bound multiple domains of SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein and inhibited interaction with ACE2 receptor in vitro. Up to seven LL-37 molecules observed surrounding
  11. [11] PMID 40375579 — LL-37 predominantly binds the S2 subunit of SARS-CoV-2 Spike and impedes TMPRSS2-mediated priming. Omicron N764K mutation reduces LL-37 affinity. LL-37 enhanced
  12. [12] PMID 35596804 — LL-37 was elevated in plasma of COVID-19 patients; levels negatively correlated with thrombin time and positively with fibrinogen. Injection of cathelicidin pep
  13. [13] PMID 35634307 — Review: LL-37 has direct anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity and immunomodulatory/pleiotropic effects relevant to COVID-19. Vitamin D and other compounds induce LL-37 expr
  14. [14] PMID 42095322 — Review: LL-37 plays dual roles in IBD—protective at physiological concentrations but potentially pathogenic at high concentrations. Discusses conditional mechan
  15. [15] PMID 27135484 — Review: Overexpression of LL-37 found in inflamed and noninflamed colon mucosa in ulcerative colitis; LL-37 expression not changed in Crohn's disease mucosa. An
  16. [16] PMID 36370932 — In EHEC O157:H7-infected mice, LL-37 treatment inhibited body weight loss, restored intestinal villi, reduced epithelial apoptosis, decreased inflammatory cytok
  17. [17] PMID 39954662 — Review: LL-37 elevated in gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) of periodontitis patients vs healthy controls; plays antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and tissue regen
  18. [18] PMID 41072077 — Case-control study (57 periodontitis patients, 57 healthy controls): LL-37 and FPR2 co-upregulated in periodontitis gingival tissues and GCF; both correlated wi
  19. [19] PMID 41916132 — Review: In most studied epithelial tumors (breast, hepatocellular, squamous cell carcinomas), LL-37 typically promotes cell migration and invasiveness. In gliom
  20. [20] PMID 29843147 — Review: LL-37 induces tumorigenic effects in ovarian, lung, breast, prostate, pancreas cancers, malignant melanoma, and skin SCC. Displays anti-cancer effects i
  21. [21] PMID 31149039 — LL-37 produced by myeloid cells is upregulated in primary human lung cancer tissues and correlates with poor clinical outcome. LL-37 promotes lung cancer growth
  22. [22] PMID 36656313 — LL-37 enhanced EMT, migration, and invasion in hepatocellular carcinoma cells via HER2/EGFR-MAPK/ERK signaling; LL-37 overexpression promoted lung metastasis in
  23. [23] PMID 39333586 — LL-37 conjugated to Fe3O4 nanoparticles (NH2@LL-37@Fe3O4) inhibited K562 leukemia cell growth in a concentration-dependent manner and induced apoptosis via TP53
  24. [24] PMID 36988247 — Observational study (50 psoriasis patients, 33 healthy controls): serum LL-37, IFN-γ, IL-17, and IL-22 significantly higher in psoriasis patients (p<0.001). LL-
  25. [25] PMID 40063262 — In psoriatic lesions, very high concentrations (~300 µM) of LL-37 are detected, implying high peptide levels at the site of inflammation that can affect host ce
  26. [26] PMID 34565561 — Commentary: LL-37 promotes NLRP3-mediated inflammasome activation through lysosomal destabilization in LPS-primed models of rosacea in vitro. Injection of LL-37
  27. [27] PMID 39615616 — Review: LL-37 is involved in regulation of atherosclerosis, thrombosis, inflammatory responses, and cardiac hypertrophy. Engineered LL-37-related peptides have
  28. [28] PMID 40690262 — LL-37 induced endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) in human umbilical vein endothelial cells via Akt and NF-κB activation, suggesting a role in atheros
  29. [29] PMID 37051254 — Case-control: CD8+CD69+CD137+ T cells significantly increased by LL-37 stimulation in ACS PBMCs vs controls. LL-37 is an autoantigen in ACS; self-reactive T cel
  30. [30] PMID 35512569 — Simultaneous exposure of exogenous LL-37 and DENV-2 reduced virus replication in human macrophages in vitro. Addition of LL-37 post-DENV-2 exposure reduced IL-6
  31. [31] PMID 38460762 — Exosome-loaded LL-37 significantly inhibited ZIKV infection in vitro and in vivo, reduced testicular injury, and showed broad-spectrum antiviral effect. Mechani
  32. [32] PMID 40971038 — In Apoe-/- mice with hypercholesterolemia, murine LL-37 homolog Cramp accelerated cholesterol clearance by activating cholesterol excretion and preventing hepat
  33. [33] PMID 31877496 — LL-37 restored glucocorticoid sensitivity impaired by dsRNA in lung epithelial cells (BEAS-2B, A549) and in a murine asthma model (mCRAMP), possibly by inhibiti
  34. [34] PMID 31046155 — Clinical trial: NETs significantly increased in nasal polyps vs controls (23.01% vs 4.52%, P<0.0001). LL-37 protein and mRNA upregulated in nasal polyps. LL-37
  35. [35] PMID 37773705 — LL-37 highly expressed in serum of children with Kawasaki disease. LL-37 stimulation of coronary artery endothelial cells increased apoptosis and expression of
  36. [36] PMID 38642493 — Vitamin D (50 nM) enhanced CAMP mRNA ~170-fold and increased hCAP18/LL-37 protein 3-4 times in THP-1 monocytes. Synthetic LL-37 at 1.04 µM reduced viability of
  37. [37] PMID 23931055 — Not specified quantitatively Endogenous (gingival epithelium) (human)
  38. [38] PMID 23 — Just over 20 µg (intravenous bolus or subcutaneous, gallium-67 labeled LL-37 radiotracer) Intravenous bolus and subcutaneous (in healthy mice) (animal)
  39. [39] PMID 26556394 — in-prose reference
  40. [40] PMID 27609777 — in-prose reference
  41. [41] PMID 28549244 — in-prose reference
  42. [42] PMID 42794783 — in-prose reference
  43. [43] PMID 57 — in-prose reference
  44. [44] PMID 18 — in-prose reference
  45. [45] PMID 38972467 — in-prose reference
  46. [46] PMID 11 — in-prose reference
  47. [47] PMID 32019695 — in-prose reference
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