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Research information only. Not medical advice. 18+ only. Not FDA-approved for human therapeutic use.

SS-31

Also known as: Elamipretide, MTP-131, Bendavia, Szeto-Schiller-31, d-Arg-2,6-dimethyltyrosine-Lys-Phe-NH2, D-Arg-dimethylTyr-Lys-Phe-NH2

Mitochondria-targeted synthetic tetrapeptide antioxidant

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What it is

SS-31 (elamipretide) is a synthetic tetrapeptide with alternating cationic and aromatic residues (d-Arg-2,6-dimethyltyrosine-Lys-Phe-NH2) that selectively targets and binds cardiolipin (CL), a phospholipid found in the inner mitochondrial membrane. This binding stabilizes mitochondrial cristae structure, reduces oxidative stress by scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS), and enhances ATP production. SS-31 also maintains mitochondrial dynamics (fission/fusion balance), suppresses inflammatory signaling pathways (including NLRP3 inflammasome, NF-κB, and MAPK pathways), and prevents cellular apoptosis. A genome-wide CRISPR screen identified phospholipid scramblase 3 (PLSCR3), an inner mitochondrial membrane protein, as an essential biological target mediating SS-31's mitoprotective effects; SS-31 directly binds PLSCR3 and stimulates its scramblase activity. Additional mechanisms include promotion of mitophagy (via PHB2 and PINK1/Parkin pathways), modulation of macrophage polarization, upregulation of frataxin expression, and inhibition of alpha-synuclein membrane binding and aggregation.

Class: Mitochondria-targeted synthetic tetrapeptide antioxidant

What it's studied for

  • Acute kidney injury (AKI) — cisplatin-induced and rhabdomyolysis-associated Mixed
    • SS-31 (10 mg/kg/day i.p. for 10 days) suppressed mitochondrial ROS-NLRP3 pathway, reduced apoptosis, and ameliorated cisplatin-induced AKI in mice; restored mitochondrial ROS and reduced NLRP3/IL-1β/Caspase-1 expression in HK-2 cells in vitro. PMID 32717631 Yang et al. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 2020
    • PLSCR3 identified as essential biological target for SS-31's mitoprotective effects in cisplatin and rhabdomyolysis AKI models; Plscr3 gene deletion completely abrogated protective effects of SS-31 in vivo. PMID 38530359 Silvaroli et al. JASN 2024
    • pH-responsive nanopolyplexes delivering SS-31 showed higher therapeutic efficiency than free SS-31 in AKI mouse model, decreasing oxidative stress, protecting mitochondrial structure, and reducing tubular apoptosis and necrosis. PMID 31085359 Liu et al. Biomaterials 2019
    • Review summarizing promising preclinical results for SS-31 in AKI; notes translational hurdles including limited bioavailability, dosing challenges, incomplete mechanistic understanding, and concerns about cost and long-term safety. PMID 41027799 Patel et al. Seminars in Nephrology 2026
  • Heart failure / cardiac dysfunction Mixed
    • Review: clinical trials PROGRESS-HF, TAZPOWER, MMPOWER-3, and ReCLAIM highlight significant therapeutic potential of elamipretide in heart failure; preclinical studies demonstrate protective and restorative efficacy. PMID 39940712 Tung et al. Int J Mol Sci 2025
    • Elamipretide treatment in HFpEF rats improved whole muscle and single-fiber contractile function, prevented atrophy, and improved mitochondrial function, with cardiolipin stabilization identified as key modulator. PMID 42290373 Vahle et al. Circulation Heart Failure 2026
  • Barth syndrome (tafazzin deficiency / cardiolipin remodeling disorder) Animal studies only
    • In vivo SS-31 treatment of TAFAZZIN knockdown mice restored mitochondrial morphology in tafazzin-deficient heart, affecting proteins involved in mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy, and improved mitochondrial respiratory efficiency. PMID 38871974 Russo et al. Scientific Reports 2024
  • Friedreich ataxia Animal studies only
    • Once-daily i.p. injection of 1 mg/kg SS-31 for 1 month in GAA-expansion mouse models significantly improved motor function, repaired dorsal root ganglia vacuolation, spinal cord lesions, and hypertrophic cardiomyocytes, and upregulated frataxin expression at mRNA and protein levels. PMID 34387346 Liu et al. Human Molecular Genetics 2021
    • SS-31 treatment in cells from FRDA patients translationally upregulated frataxin protein level in a dose-dependent manner, increased iron-sulfur enzyme activities, and improved mitochondrial membrane potential, ATP content, and morphology. PMID 28852135 Zhao et al. Scientific Reports 2017
  • Sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE) / postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) Animal studies only
    • SS-31 administered i.p. for 7 consecutive days after CLP surgery improved cognitive performance and survival in SAE mice, attenuated hippocampal inflammation and excessive mitochondrial fission, and inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome activation via Drp1. PMID 36333543 Zhong et al. Neuromolecular Medicine 2023
    • SS-31 interacted with PHB2 to activate mitophagy and reduce cGAS-STING pathway and M1 microglial polarization, conferring neuroprotection against POCD in aged surgical mice. PMID 38411634 Ji et al. Inflammation Research 2024
  • Neurodegenerative disease — Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease / synucleinopathy Mixed
    • Review summarizing beneficial effects of SS-31 in Alzheimer's disease and diabetes models; SS-31 inhibits oxidative stress and restores mitochondrial function. PMID 34302976 Ding et al. Pharmacological Research 2021
    • SS-31 displaced alpha-synuclein from negatively charged lipid membranes in a dose-dependent manner, inhibited membrane-induced alpha-synuclein aggregation, enhanced cell viability, and restored impaired mitochondrial function in neuroblastoma cells treated with alpha-synuclein oligomers. PMID 42219795 Stefaniak et al. Chemical Biology & Drug Design 2026
    • SS-31, formulated in a mitochondria-targeted micelle with cyclosporin A, penetrated the blood-brain barrier and reduced neuroinflammation and cognitive impairment in 5×FAD Alzheimer's disease mice. PMID 39713820 Qian et al. Small 2025
  • Spinal cord injury Animal studies only
    • SS-31 treatment significantly enhanced locomotor recovery and gait performance, reduced lesion pathology, attenuated apoptosis signaling, and enhanced axonal/synaptic remodeling markers in a mouse thoracic contusion SCI model. PMID 42082001 Song et al. Neurochemistry International 2026
    • SS-31 reduced neuronal death and neurite degeneration in vitro (dose-dependently); attenuated cardiolipin reduction and improved behavioral recovery after contusive SCI in adult mice, though with no significant effect on tissue damage. PMID 40244206 Ravenscraft et al. Int J Mol Sci 2025
  • Pulmonary fibrosis (idiopathic and bleomycin-induced) Animal studies only
    • SS-31 injection every other day suppressed bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis and inflammation in mice, reduced extracellular matrix deposition and inflammatory cytokines, and inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome via Nrf2 in macrophages. PMID 38136142 Nie et al. Antioxidants 2023
    • SS-31 (5 mg/kg i.p. daily) alleviated bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis, protected mitochondrial structure and function, reduced ROS and inflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6) in mice. PMID 40299935 Gu et al. PLoS One 2025
  • Liver injury — ischemia-reperfusion injury and hepatic fibrosis Animal studies only
    • SS-31 treatment significantly attenuated hepatic IRI, suppressed oxidative stress and inflammation, and regulated macrophage polarization through ROS scavenging and STAT1/STAT3 signaling. PMID 33986918 Shang et al. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity 2021
    • SS-31 blocked hepatic stellate cell activation by regulating NLRP3 inflammasome and reduced liver inflammation and collagen deposition in CCl4-induced liver fibrosis mice. PMID 38430023 Liu et al. Cellular and Molecular Biology 2024
  • Tendinopathy In vitro only
    • SS-31 (1 µM, 72 hours) treatment of human degenerative tenocytes from rotator cuff patients improved mitochondrial function, reduced depolarized mitochondria, increased superoxide dismutase activity, and reduced expression of MMP-1 and FABP4. PMID 35862638 Zhang et al. American Journal of Sports Medicine 2022
  • Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) / diabetic cardiomyopathy Animal studies only
    • SS-31 treatment markedly inhibited mitochondrial dysfunction and cell injury in podocytes and partly reversed damage mediated by ALCAT1 overexpression in a diabetic kidney disease model. PMID 38200543 Hao et al. Cell Communication and Signaling 2024
    • SS-31 (2.5 mg/kg/day i.p. for 4 weeks) alleviated mitochondria-dependent ferroptosis and improved cardiac function in diabetic cardiomyopathy mice via activation of the mitoGSH/mitoGPX4 pathway. PMID 39364755 Xiong et al. Int J Mol Med 2024
  • Myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury / ferroptosis in cardiomyocytes Animal studies only
    • SS-31@Fer-1 (elamipretide conjugated with ferrostatin-1) suppressed ferroptosis in hypoxia/reoxygenation cardiomyocytes by maintaining iron homeostasis, improving mitochondrial function, and inhibiting oxidative stress. PMID 39848110 Zheng et al. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 2025
    • SS-31 significantly alleviated SPION-induced ferroptosis in H/R H9C2 cardiomyocytes by decreasing mitochondrial MDA and maintaining GSH and GPX4 levels. PMID 39506934 Lu et al. Heliyon 2024
  • Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) / retinal protection In vitro only
    • SS-31 attenuated H2O2-induced cell viability loss, oxidative damage, and apoptosis in ARPE-19 retinal pigment epithelial cells; upregulated HO-1, Trx-1, and Nrf-2; inhibited apoptosis via Bax downregulation and Bcl-2 upregulation. PMID 33774859 Bai et al. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology & Physiology 2021
    • Review identifying SS-31/Elamipretide as a potential therapeutic candidate for AMD based on its mechanisms of cytoprotection. PMID 34572131 Nashine. Cells 2021
  • Type 2 diabetes — leukocyte-endothelium interactions and oxidative stress Human observational
    • Ex vivo SS-31 treatment of leukocytes from T2D patients (n=51) restored mitochondrial ROS, increased mitochondrial membrane potential and glutathione, reduced leukocyte rolling/adhesion, and decreased NFκB-p65 and TNFα. Case-control study design; treatment was ex vivo, not administered to humans in vivo. PMID 30367115 Escribano-Lopez et al. Scientific Reports 2018
  • Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell osteogenic differentiation (aging) In vitro only
    • SS-31 increased ATP production by 35%, reduced ROS by 40%, enhanced ALP activity 2.8-fold, increased Alizarin Red S staining 3.5-fold, and reduced NOS2 expression by 50% in aged human BM-MSCs. PMID 40570323 Duan et al. Organogenesis 2025
  • Radiation-induced cardiomyocyte senescence In vitro only
    • SS-31 (1 µM, 7 days) reduced SA-β-gal positive staining from 67% to 38% in 10 Gy-irradiated H9C2 cells; prevented increases in p16, p21, SASP markers, reversed BAX/bcl-2 ratio, and mitigated mitochondrial ROS production. PMID 42456009 Xie et al. Journal of Radiation Research 2026
  • Ozone-induced airway hyperresponsiveness and mucus hypersecretion Animal studies only
    • SS-31 administered i.p. 1 h before O3 exposure attenuated AHR, reduced BAL inflammatory cell influx, decreased mucus hypersecretion, improved redox balance, and suppressed PI3K/AKT and NLRP3/caspase-1/GSDMD signaling in C57BL/6J mice. PMID 41801306 Xie et al. Lung 2026
  • Cigarette smoke-induced airway inflammation and oral epithelial injury Animal studies only
    • SS-31 pretreatment attenuated CS-induced airway inflammation, reduced TNF-α, IL-6, MMP9, decreased MDA/MPO, increased SOD, restored mitochondrial dynamics, and inhibited MAPK signaling in mice and BEAS-2B cells. PMID 34221235 Yang et al. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity 2021
    • SS-31 reduced oxidative stress, attenuated inflammatory response, and restored mitochondrial function in CSE-treated oral epithelial cells via PINK1/Parkin-mediated mitophagy. PMID 39069114 Ye et al. Chemico-Biological Interactions 2024
  • Inflammatory bowel disease — mitochondria-targeted drug delivery Animal studies only
    • SS-31 tetrapeptide decorated onto Treg-derived exosomes loaded with selenium created a targeted delivery system that scavenged mtROS and prevented PANoptosis in IBD mouse models. PMID 39689981 Gong et al. Trends in Biotechnology 2025
  • Dry eye disease Animal studies only
    • A liposome nanosystem incorporating SS-31 achieved mitochondrial targeting and antioxidant effects, reduced IL-1β/IL-6/TNF-α and ROS, improved tear secretion, and suppressed ocular surface damage in DED mice. PMID 38725011 Xia et al. Journal of Nanobiotechnology 2024
  • Islet cell transplantation / type 1 diabetes Animal studies only
    • SS-31 pretreatment preserved mitochondrial polarization, reduced islet cell apoptosis, increased islet yield, and improved post-transplantation function in diabetic mice with marginal islet mass transplants; also reduced apoptosis and increased viability in human islets in vitro. PMID 17151329 Thomas et al. JASN 2007
  • Aging glomerular architecture / age-related kidney changes Animal studies only
    • 8 weeks of SS-31 treatment in 24-month-old mice improved mitochondrial morphology, reduced glomerulosclerosis and senescence, increased parietal epithelial cell density, improved podocyte cytoskeletal integrity, and increased glomerular endothelial cell density. PMID 28063595 Sweetwyne et al. Kidney International 2017
  • Atherosclerosis / foam cell formation In vitro only
    • SS-31 inhibited ox-LDL-induced foam cell formation and cholesterol accumulation in RAW264.7 macrophages, attenuated ROS generation, increased SOD activity, dose-dependently inhibited CD36 and LOX-1 scavenger receptor expression, and decreased IL-6 and TNF-α. PMID 26633327 Hao et al. Molecules 2015
  • Disc degeneration / nucleus pulposus cell protection In vitro only
    • SS-31 ameliorated LPS-induced apoptosis, pyroptosis, and inflammation in nucleus pulposus cells by scavenging mitochondrial ROS, stabilizing mitochondrial dynamics, and inhibiting NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome activation. PMID 34903138 Peng et al. Free Radical Research 2021
  • Epilepsy / hippocampal neuronal protection Animal studies only
    • SS-31 reduced severity of epileptic seizures and inhibited ferroptosis in hippocampus of pilocarpine-induced epileptic rats via p38 MAPK signaling inhibition; reversed iron/MDA accumulation, GPX4 reduction, and mitochondrial ultrastructural damage. PMID 38521160 Liu et al. Brain Research 2024
  • Headache / migraine Animal studies only
    • SS-31 alleviated nociceptive responses and restored mitochondrial function and homeostasis in an inflammatory soup-induced headache mouse model via the Sirt3/Pgc-1α positive feedback loop. PMID 37271805 Shan et al. Journal of Headache and Pain 2023
  • Post-cardiac arrest brain injury Animal studies only
    • SS-31 treatment improved survival rates, reduced neurological deficits, and lowered serum NSE and S100B in a rat cardiac arrest/resuscitation model; attenuated microglial ferroptosis and promoted anti-inflammatory shift via Sesn2 signaling pathway. PMID 41136322 Jiang et al. Neurotherapeutics 2026
  • Ischemic stroke / brain ischemia-reperfusion injury Animal studies only
    • Combination of SS-31 and NMN significantly attenuated post-ischemic brain damage in MCAO/R mice, suppressing NF-κB/TREM2 signaling, microglial activation, and pro-inflammatory cytokines, with effects superior to either monotherapy. PMID 42443448 Yang et al. Neurochemical Research 2026
  • Doxorubicin-induced cardiomyocyte senescence In vitro only
    • SS-31 (1 µM) partially attenuated DOX-induced SA-β-gal staining (from 51.4% to 35.8%) in H9C2 cells, prevented increases in p16, p21, and SASP markers, and mitigated mitochondrial ROS; did not prevent cell cycle arrest. PMID 42450582 Fan et al. Biology 2026
  • Musculoskeletal injuries and athletic performance (narrative review context) Animal studies only
    • Narrative review: SS-31 (elamipretide) is among unapproved peptides marketed direct to patients for sports medicine; favorable tissue repair outcomes in animal models but rigorous human safety data are described as scarce. PMID 41966639 Mendias & Awan. Sports Medicine 2026
  • Maternal oocyte aging / reproductive aging Animal studies only
    • SS-31 supplementation improved oocyte maturation and early embryonic development from aged mice, restored spindle/chromosome structure, reduced aneuploidy and ROS, and increased levels of spermidine and GSH as anti-aging metabolites. PMID 41612464 Xiong et al. Journal of Ovarian Research 2026
  • Preimplantation telomere length modulation Animal studies only
    • Among mitochondrially-targeted therapeutics tested (BGP-15, MitoQ, SS-31, metformin), SS-31 was demonstrated to modulate the preimplantation telomere resetting process and restore deficiencies in neonatal telomere length in mouse zygotes with mitochondrial disruption. PMID 40087268 Winstanley et al. Nature Communications 2025

Community-reported dosing

RouteDoseFrequency / DurationPopulation / contextSource tier
subcutaneous injection2 mgdailybiohackers and longevity-focused individuals targeting mitochondrial optimization and energy production[S] Claude Sonnet 4.6 — synthesized from aggregate training data
subcutaneous injection1 mgdailybiohackers starting out with SS-31 or those sensitive to peptides, longevity-focused adults[S] Claude Sonnet 4.6 — synthesized from aggregate training data
subcutaneous injection4 mgdailyexperienced biohackers seeking aggressive mitochondrial support, individuals with significant fatigue or chronic illness context[S] Claude Sonnet 4.6 — synthesized from aggregate training data
subcutaneous injection2 mgevery other day (EOD)longevity-focused biohackers managing cost or attempting a maintenance-phase protocol[S] Claude Sonnet 4.6 — synthesized from aggregate training data
subcutaneous injection2 mgdaily, 5 days on / 2 days offbiohackers running extended protocols who prefer a structured work/rest cycle[S] Claude Sonnet 4.6 — synthesized from aggregate training data
subcutaneous injection2 mgdailyathletes and high-intensity training individuals targeting exercise recovery and reduced oxidative stress[S] Claude Sonnet 4.6 — synthesized from aggregate training data
subcutaneous injection1 mgdailyolder adults (50+) and longevity-focused biohackers using SS-31 as part of a long-term mitochondrial maintenance stack[S] Claude Sonnet 4.6 — synthesized from aggregate training data
subcutaneous injection2 mgdailyindividuals with cardiovascular health concerns or post-cardiac-stress context, biohackers interested in cardiac mitochondrial protection[S] Claude Sonnet 4.6 — synthesized from aggregate training data

Tier key: Research = PMID-cited study · [C] = scraped community source · [S] = model-synthesized from aggregate community reports (softer evidence). How we source.

References

  1. [1] PMID 32717631 — SS-31 (10 mg/kg/day i.p. for 10 days) suppressed mitochondrial ROS-NLRP3 pathway, reduced apoptosis, and ameliorated cisplatin-induced AKI in mice; restored mit
  2. [2] PMID 38530359 — PLSCR3 identified as essential biological target for SS-31's mitoprotective effects in cisplatin and rhabdomyolysis AKI models; Plscr3 gene deletion completely
  3. [3] PMID 31085359 — pH-responsive nanopolyplexes delivering SS-31 showed higher therapeutic efficiency than free SS-31 in AKI mouse model, decreasing oxidative stress, protecting m
  4. [4] PMID 41027799 — Review summarizing promising preclinical results for SS-31 in AKI; notes translational hurdles including limited bioavailability, dosing challenges, incomplete
  5. [5] PMID 39940712 — Review: clinical trials PROGRESS-HF, TAZPOWER, MMPOWER-3, and ReCLAIM highlight significant therapeutic potential of elamipretide in heart failure; preclinical
  6. [6] PMID 42290373 — Elamipretide treatment in HFpEF rats improved whole muscle and single-fiber contractile function, prevented atrophy, and improved mitochondrial function, with c
  7. [7] PMID 38871974 — In vivo SS-31 treatment of TAFAZZIN knockdown mice restored mitochondrial morphology in tafazzin-deficient heart, affecting proteins involved in mitochondrial d
  8. [8] PMID 34387346 — Once-daily i.p. injection of 1 mg/kg SS-31 for 1 month in GAA-expansion mouse models significantly improved motor function, repaired dorsal root ganglia vacuola
  9. [9] PMID 28852135 — SS-31 treatment in cells from FRDA patients translationally upregulated frataxin protein level in a dose-dependent manner, increased iron-sulfur enzyme activiti
  10. [10] PMID 36333543 — SS-31 administered i.p. for 7 consecutive days after CLP surgery improved cognitive performance and survival in SAE mice, attenuated hippocampal inflammation an
  11. [11] PMID 38411634 — SS-31 interacted with PHB2 to activate mitophagy and reduce cGAS-STING pathway and M1 microglial polarization, conferring neuroprotection against POCD in aged s
  12. [12] PMID 34302976 — Review summarizing beneficial effects of SS-31 in Alzheimer's disease and diabetes models; SS-31 inhibits oxidative stress and restores mitochondrial function.
  13. [13] PMID 42219795 — SS-31 displaced alpha-synuclein from negatively charged lipid membranes in a dose-dependent manner, inhibited membrane-induced alpha-synuclein aggregation, enha
  14. [14] PMID 39713820 — SS-31, formulated in a mitochondria-targeted micelle with cyclosporin A, penetrated the blood-brain barrier and reduced neuroinflammation and cognitive impairme
  15. [15] PMID 42082001 — SS-31 treatment significantly enhanced locomotor recovery and gait performance, reduced lesion pathology, attenuated apoptosis signaling, and enhanced axonal/sy
  16. [16] PMID 40244206 — SS-31 reduced neuronal death and neurite degeneration in vitro (dose-dependently); attenuated cardiolipin reduction and improved behavioral recovery after contu
  17. [17] PMID 38136142 — SS-31 injection every other day suppressed bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis and inflammation in mice, reduced extracellular matrix deposition and inflammato
  18. [18] PMID 40299935 — SS-31 (5 mg/kg i.p. daily) alleviated bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis, protected mitochondrial structure and function, reduced ROS and inflammatory factors
  19. [19] PMID 33986918 — SS-31 treatment significantly attenuated hepatic IRI, suppressed oxidative stress and inflammation, and regulated macrophage polarization through ROS scavenging
  20. [20] PMID 38430023 — SS-31 blocked hepatic stellate cell activation by regulating NLRP3 inflammasome and reduced liver inflammation and collagen deposition in CCl4-induced liver fib
  21. [21] PMID 35862638 — SS-31 (1 µM, 72 hours) treatment of human degenerative tenocytes from rotator cuff patients improved mitochondrial function, reduced depolarized mitochondria, i
  22. [22] PMID 38200543 — SS-31 treatment markedly inhibited mitochondrial dysfunction and cell injury in podocytes and partly reversed damage mediated by ALCAT1 overexpression in a diab
  23. [23] PMID 39364755 — SS-31 (2.5 mg/kg/day i.p. for 4 weeks) alleviated mitochondria-dependent ferroptosis and improved cardiac function in diabetic cardiomyopathy mice via activatio
  24. [24] PMID 39848110 — SS-31@Fer-1 (elamipretide conjugated with ferrostatin-1) suppressed ferroptosis in hypoxia/reoxygenation cardiomyocytes by maintaining iron homeostasis, improvi
  25. [25] PMID 39506934 — SS-31 significantly alleviated SPION-induced ferroptosis in H/R H9C2 cardiomyocytes by decreasing mitochondrial MDA and maintaining GSH and GPX4 levels.
  26. [26] PMID 33774859 — SS-31 attenuated H2O2-induced cell viability loss, oxidative damage, and apoptosis in ARPE-19 retinal pigment epithelial cells; upregulated HO-1, Trx-1, and Nrf
  27. [27] PMID 34572131 — Review identifying SS-31/Elamipretide as a potential therapeutic candidate for AMD based on its mechanisms of cytoprotection.
  28. [28] PMID 30367115 — Ex vivo SS-31 treatment of leukocytes from T2D patients (n=51) restored mitochondrial ROS, increased mitochondrial membrane potential and glutathione, reduced l
  29. [29] PMID 40570323 — SS-31 increased ATP production by 35%, reduced ROS by 40%, enhanced ALP activity 2.8-fold, increased Alizarin Red S staining 3.5-fold, and reduced NOS2 expressi
  30. [30] PMID 42456009 — SS-31 (1 µM, 7 days) reduced SA-β-gal positive staining from 67% to 38% in 10 Gy-irradiated H9C2 cells; prevented increases in p16, p21, SASP markers, reversed
  31. [31] PMID 41801306 — SS-31 administered i.p. 1 h before O3 exposure attenuated AHR, reduced BAL inflammatory cell influx, decreased mucus hypersecretion, improved redox balance, and
  32. [32] PMID 34221235 — SS-31 pretreatment attenuated CS-induced airway inflammation, reduced TNF-α, IL-6, MMP9, decreased MDA/MPO, increased SOD, restored mitochondrial dynamics, and
  33. [33] PMID 39069114 — SS-31 reduced oxidative stress, attenuated inflammatory response, and restored mitochondrial function in CSE-treated oral epithelial cells via PINK1/Parkin-medi
  34. [34] PMID 39689981 — SS-31 tetrapeptide decorated onto Treg-derived exosomes loaded with selenium created a targeted delivery system that scavenged mtROS and prevented PANoptosis in
  35. [35] PMID 38725011 — A liposome nanosystem incorporating SS-31 achieved mitochondrial targeting and antioxidant effects, reduced IL-1β/IL-6/TNF-α and ROS, improved tear secretion, a
  36. [36] PMID 17151329 — SS-31 pretreatment preserved mitochondrial polarization, reduced islet cell apoptosis, increased islet yield, and improved post-transplantation function in diab
  37. [37] PMID 28063595 — 8 weeks of SS-31 treatment in 24-month-old mice improved mitochondrial morphology, reduced glomerulosclerosis and senescence, increased parietal epithelial cell
  38. [38] PMID 26633327 — SS-31 inhibited ox-LDL-induced foam cell formation and cholesterol accumulation in RAW264.7 macrophages, attenuated ROS generation, increased SOD activity, dose
  39. [39] PMID 34903138 — SS-31 ameliorated LPS-induced apoptosis, pyroptosis, and inflammation in nucleus pulposus cells by scavenging mitochondrial ROS, stabilizing mitochondrial dynam
  40. [40] PMID 38521160 — SS-31 reduced severity of epileptic seizures and inhibited ferroptosis in hippocampus of pilocarpine-induced epileptic rats via p38 MAPK signaling inhibition; r
  41. [41] PMID 37271805 — SS-31 alleviated nociceptive responses and restored mitochondrial function and homeostasis in an inflammatory soup-induced headache mouse model via the Sirt3/Pg
  42. [42] PMID 41136322 — SS-31 treatment improved survival rates, reduced neurological deficits, and lowered serum NSE and S100B in a rat cardiac arrest/resuscitation model; attenuated
  43. [43] PMID 42443448 — Combination of SS-31 and NMN significantly attenuated post-ischemic brain damage in MCAO/R mice, suppressing NF-κB/TREM2 signaling, microglial activation, and p
  44. [44] PMID 42450582 — SS-31 (1 µM) partially attenuated DOX-induced SA-β-gal staining (from 51.4% to 35.8%) in H9C2 cells, prevented increases in p16, p21, and SASP markers, and miti
  45. [45] PMID 41966639 — Narrative review: SS-31 (elamipretide) is among unapproved peptides marketed direct to patients for sports medicine; favorable tissue repair outcomes in animal
  46. [46] PMID 41612464 — SS-31 supplementation improved oocyte maturation and early embryonic development from aged mice, restored spindle/chromosome structure, reduced aneuploidy and R
  47. [47] PMID 40087268 — Among mitochondrially-targeted therapeutics tested (BGP-15, MitoQ, SS-31, metformin), SS-31 was demonstrated to modulate the preimplantation telomere resetting
  48. [48] PMID 38237649 — in-prose reference
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